RELIGIOUS AND SPIRITUAL CONCEPTS IN DENTAL PRACTICES IN ANCIENT ORIENT

Abstract

Ancient Orient dentistry was under the influence of magic by means of various symbols: animals (worms and mice), plants (fig tree) or cosmic elements (the Sun), trying to oust the harmful elements through ritual or family habits. In doing so, the myth of "dental worm" became a possible cause of dental decay met at most ancient Eastern civilizations. The results of this study overview the importance of spiritual symbolism in dentistry, on the basis of the existing historical documents.

Headnote

Abstract

Ancient Orient dentistry was under the influence of magic by means of various symbols: animals (worms and mice), plants (fig tree) or cosmic elements (the Sun), trying to oust the harmful elements through ritual or family habits. In doing so, the myth of "dental worm" became a possible cause of dental decay met at most ancient Eastern civilizations. The results of this study overview the importance of spiritual symbolism in dentistry, on the basis of the existing historical documents.

Keywords: religion, dentistry, history, ancient Orient

INTRODUCTION

In its rudimentary form, dentistry has been practised since earhest times, as attested by various archaeological and literary sources. Research in the field of malacology demonstrated the existence of concerns for aesthetic dentistry, since most ancient times: intended dental mutilations, adornments or anterior level changes were practised in many cultures, either for assuring aesthetical pleasing or as religious rituals. The oldest known evidence of dental treatments dates 7,500-9,000 years back. In the Neolithic city of Mehrgarh, in Pakistan, 11 crowns of permanent molars, of which nine came from adults, presenting traces of dental treatments, were discovered. The trepanation holes had a depth between 0.5 and 3.5 mm and a diameter between 1.3 and 3.2 mm, which demonstrates the existence of special tools for dental interventions. Location of the rear riddlings has generated controversy on the - rehgious or therapeutic - motivation of these manoeuvers. No one can assert for sure whether these treatments had been made to relieve patient's pain, to enhance the aesthetical appearance or to dismiss evil spirits [1].

The present study approaches the aspects of rehgious and spiritual concepts in the ancient Oriental dental space. The topic is a provocative and interesting one, if considering the absence of documentation, the scarce information provided by medical papyri and historical studies of various authors, offerring only a general framework, and making difficult an exact establishment of the historical moment in which dentistry became an independent medical field.

hr ancient times, diseases were considered to be the result of malefic forces, so that the medical practice was combined with rehgious rituals. Demons were considered a major cause for all diseases, including the dental ones. To banish demons and any hostile entity from patient's body, divinities were invoked to defend man and his health condition [2].

THE MIDDLE EAST EGIPT

The ancient, mystical and rehgious Egyptian medicine was systematized and codified in ancient papyri and transmitted to the medical temples schools, as a valuable source of information for people [3]. Its concepts were a mix between rehgious elements, represented by magic, quite various medical procedures [4], the treatments being closely related to magic. Whatever the real etiology of the disease, it has been always thought that the main cause was an evil force disturbing the harmony of the body. Egyptian doctors were part of the caste of priests, trying to erne by means of spells, talismans and incantations [5], each disease having its own specific healers: "some cure eyes, other teeth, other womb, some other hidden diseases" [6]. The education of ancient doctors was done in schools belonging to temples, a proof of this aspect being the evidence found on the wall of the Kom Ornbo Temple, where some surgical instruments, including dental ones, are carved. Archaeological evidence attests that the Egyptians were the first to use surgical instruments, heated in fire, for the incision of abscesses. Medical writings had a significant importance for Egyptians healers, medical books being appreciated as a gift from the God of health, Thot [7]. Viewed as intermediaries between God Thoth and the illness, physicians were required to keep secret the treatment procedures because of their sacred origin [8]. The Egyptian manuscripts known as the Ebers Papyrus, dating around 1,500 BC, provide very early information on dental diseases, such as dental pain, inflamed gums, abcesses, and also various remedies [9]. The mummies and skulls discovered in the archeological sites attest that Egyptians' teeth were in a very bad condition, the main causes of alteration being dental caries and abrasion. The general belief was that caries and abscesses were produced by a "dental worm". This belief was based on the fact that, during dental treatments, consisting in vital tissue removal, the dental nerves had the shape of a "worm" [10]. Teeth pain, with acute periods and spontaneous remissions, was blamed on the intervention of divinity. The Egyptians believed that the mouse was under the direct protection of God Sun, so that it was used in dental treatments by applying a "mouse still warm" on the affected area [11]. If the doctor was helped in his action by a supernatural force (gods or spirits), the empirical remedy applied was considered as more effective, while the magic formula applied for curing dental absccesses was accompanied even by a therapeutic procedure. It is possible that one drug or another to be efficient, independently on the magic formula used, even when the patient forgot the words or hesitated to utter them [12].

Other historical proofs were found in the ancient necropolis of Saida or Saidon, namely parts of a woman maxilla, with a prosthetic appliance formed of two canines and four incisors, joined by a common thread of gold. Two of the incisors seemed to belong to another person, being applied as a substitute for the lost ones. Besides bone fragments, two copper coins, Egyptian scarabs and 12 small faience figurines were also found, which directed the archeologists toward the Egyptian origin and illustrated the importance of various religious objects used in burial rituals to identity' the origin of old dentures. [13]

MESOPOTAMIA

In ancient times, Mesopotamian medicine, as customary in all countries of the Orient, represented a more wizardry practice, based on magic meant at chasing the evil forces and at healing various diseases. Sumerian texts (ritual chants) dated around 5,000 BC, including suggestive illustrations of the therapeutic purposes had in view, developed the idea that a "dental worm" would be the cause of tooth decay. "After Ann hud created heaven,/Heaven had created the earth,/ The earth had created the rivers,/ The rivers had created the marsh,/And the marsh had created the worm -/The worm went, weeping, before Shamash,/ His tears flowing before Ea: "What will you give me for food?/What will you give me to suck on?"/ "1 will give you the ripe fig and the apricot."/ "What good are the ripe fig and the apricot?/ Lift me up, and assign me to the teeth and the gurus!/1 will suck the blood of the tooth,/and 1 will gnaw its roots at the gum!"/ Because you have said this, O worm,/ May Ea strike you with the might of his hand".

These texts highlight some important stages: creation of the world, birth of the worm and disease, the primordial and paradigmatic gestures (destruction of the worm by Ea). The therapeutic effectiveness of the chant lays in the fact that, used as a ritual, it recalls the mythical origin of the world, as well as the origin of teeth pain [14]. As evidenced by this text, the deity' who had contributed to the emergence of such "dental worms" was Anu (in Sumerian: AN).

In ancient times, no scientific explanation existed for dental diseases, considered simply as an imbalance in the harmony of body and spirit [15]. Similarly with the Egyptian culture, ancient Sumerians believed that it had been a worm that created a "hole" in the tooth, causing dental pain. Another explanation of the "tooth worm" myth lies in the fact that dental caries look like "holes" made by woodworms in wood. Testimonials on dental decay causes can be found at the British Museum where, on a tablet of Ninevah, the tooth worm and the healing recipe are drawn [16]. The oldest written source that refers to dental diseases, discovered by archaeologists on the lower Euphrates Valley, dated around 5,000 BC, is a clay tablet containing cuneiform inscriptions, about a "worm" responsible for dental pain [17]. The "tooth worm" was the creature that explains how even a sound tooth can be invaded and destroved [18]The

myth of "tooth Worm" continued to be considered the main cause of toothache until the 18th century, when the "father of dentistry", Pierre Foucard, gave a simple scientific explanation of dental pain: tooth decay.

THE FAR EAST JAPAN

Data related to this topic are very scarce, due to the absence of literary sources, which is the result of the traditionalism that has characterized and still characterizes this country. One of the ancient Japanese practices related with the dental field was the teeth blackening custom: Ohaguro (in Japanese, the word "ohaguro" literally means black teeth). The ohaguro practice, going back thousands of years, since prehistorical Japan, was originally done mainly by the members of the imperial family and by aristocrats [19]. According to Angus Trumbles, it had originated in the Buddhist idea that white teeth "reveals the nature of animal in humans and that civilized people should hide them, not by any other means than by a black coat of paint". The same author has speculated that they put their wives and also the Samurai daughters to paint their teeth in order "to make them less desirable for rape or kidnapping." Later on, even the early samurai and noblemen began to paint their teeth in black [20]. hi the beginning, many women would paint their teeth for symbolizing their coming of age. This practice was only taken up by the wealthy and aristocratic ones, black teeth also reflecting decay. Decay was a luxury if only the wealthy ones could afford sugar and sweets, which made it also a status symbol. Some studies evidenced that Ohaguro also had medical benefits, as an ancient dental treatment against tooth decay and periodontitis. Ferrous acetate (iron filings broken down in vinegar) is thought to be the key ingredient for preventing tooth decay. Tooth blackening enhanced teeth health, modern studies showing that this custom maintained the integrity of the dental arch for a long time.

CHINA

The ancient history of dentistry emphasizes the same Chinese Oriental belief of the "tooth worm" producing dental cavities. The worm was the symbol of life, recreated from decomposition.

In spiritual terms, the Chinese people recognize two principles of vitality: Yin and Yang, spirits represented by blood and air - the vehicles of these two essential principles of life, occurring in constant balance and perfect union. [21].

A widely used therapy in China was acupuncture; there were twenty-six therapeutical points where needles were applied to quell the pain caused by dental caries, and other six points for treating gum pain. The healing mode depended on the relationship between one of these points and the channels of conmiunication and transmission through blood circulation and vital spirits. These channels served as a transmission path for all parts of the body, including the teeth, according to the two vital principles, Yin and Yang [22].

Another aspect of the ancient Chinese dentistry was represented by the mutilations and dental decorations made for religious, ritual-aesthetic reasons, or for representing a symbol of prestige, or as a sign of membership to a particular social group. Different forms of dental mutilation and decorations were discovered in some of the most ancient civilizations of China, India and SouthEast Asia [23].

Various religious books of ancient China showed that, for assuring tooth hygiene, Buddha himself (Vlth century BC) used various "little wood sticks soaked in water" to clean the teeth [24] . As to the material used for dental treatments, it was thought that mercury, a component of dental amalgam, was able to extend tooth life, probably due to its protective properties. The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang Di, the one who unified China between 245 and 221 BC, tried to swallow a few pills of mercury, for becoming immortal, which caused his death. There is a mythology of mercury entering the composition of dental amalgam, a homogeneous mixture of alloys used in dental fillings. The mythology of mercury was known in Babylonia as Nebo (Nabi), son of God Marduk. Mercury was a metal also known in other parts of ancient East, not only in China, in India or Egypt, where several different mercury samples have been found in a tomb dating around 1,500 BC.

Another method to neutralise dental diseases was a powder mixture of arsenic and water made into a pill placed near the painful tooth or ear.

INDIA

Ancient Indian medicine included three distinct periods, the most important one being the second, placed between 100 and 400 BC, represented by the Hindu and brahman priests [25] . According to the laws of Manu, they were part of the old Indian society, together with warriors (kshatriya), manufacturers (vaisya) and servants (sudra).

Indian medicine distinguishes itself by the attention granted to hygienic measures, in the form of prescribed religious broadcast. One of the steps taken referred to the way in which the individual was supposed to focus on personal hygiene, a special aspect being tooth cleaning. From a social point of view, an important aspect is the fact that the recommendations concerning hygienic measures were addressed especially to the privileged castes.

Joseph Murphy wrote in his paper, entitled "The natural history of human tooth clipping", published in London in 1811, that brahmans paid special attention to their dental fittings maintenance, rubbing their teeth for an hour with a fig stem, while looking towards the rising smi, and reciting prayers and summoning. This was a usual practice in the old codes and religious writings from India, demonstrating the importance given since ancient times by the people of this country, and especially those of Brahma caste, to dental hygiene and beauty. Teeth were considered one of the main faces of ornaments, bearing a rehgious subtext.

Another important aspect is related to tooth cleaning: in the morning, at sunrise, appearing as a manifestation of divinity, conceived as the son of the Supreme God, the symbol of fight, heat and life. Hindu texts consider the Sun the origin of everything that exists on earth, the beginning and end of any events, the feeding being (savitri).

hr the present case, we are witnessing a sort of "food for thought" of the teeth, through the Sun.

With regard to dental hygiene, the fig was not chosen by chance. As in the case of the ancient Egyptians, which played an illuminist role in faros medicine, the fig tree plays an important role, in the case of brahmans, as well. This tree was considered as being the India Vishnu and Shiva's tree, the symbol of power and life.

The ancient Indian medicine, also including the dental branch, played an important role in Asia, a great significance being the Ayurvedics teachings imported from India by the Buddhist monks and spread in Indo-China, Indonesia, Tibet, Central Asia, up to Japan.

On Bah Islands, there were various dental ritual interventions. Thus, there was a ceremony in which the anterior healthy teeth were modified by grinding, for marking the transition from adolescence to adulthood. The ceremonial intended to symbolize the spiritual development of the individual and to eliminate passion, nature and wildness of arrogance.

Dentistry was an important field, dating, as an independent profession as early as the third millennium BC, although it may not have never been prominent. The roots of dentistry run deeper than we ever realize. Consider, for example, that researchers discovered a skull in Pakistan with perfectly drilled holes in the teeth and a supporting bone structure, carbon dated between 7,000 BC and 5,500 BC. This discovery proved that dentistry has been practised in some form for at least 4,000 years earlier than it was previously thought.

From the simple fabrication of retention appliances in the Bronze Age to the 21st century advances recorded in the design, fabrication, and materials, the technologies being developed today are products of trial, error, and experimentation of the past 9,000-plus years.

Of course, dental care was delivered much differently back then, and the understanding of what caused tooth decay and pain was limited. For instance, many cultures believed in the "legend of the worm," a theory first noted approximately around 1,000 BC, according to which tooth decay, pain, and gum disease were caused by a worm sent by demons to drink the blood from human teeth. That idea progressed for nearly 2,000 years -into the Middle Ages - until Arabic cultures correctly identified tooth pain and decay as being caused by unknown substances in the oral cavity.

CONCLUSIONS

The study attempted at tracing the roots of dentistry and at providing a frame of reference as we search for new ways to push dentistry forward. Knowing where we came from can help us build on the knowledge we already possess, continue the advancement of our profession, and settle our own place in the history of dentistry.

References

References

1. Manos N. Budny R, Exploring dentistry's roots can help ns shape the profession's future, Inside Dental Technology, Volume2, Issue!, 201!, 61.

2. Daniel C., Cultura spiritual a a Egiptnlni antic, CarteaRomâneasca, 1985, 182.

3. Bologa V. L., IstoriaMedicinei, Edituramedicalä, Bucureçti, 1963, 24.

4. Dobanovacki D. et. AT, Surgery Before Common Era (B.C.E.*), History of Medicine, Vol 20, No. 1-2, July 2012, 30.

5. Eliade M., Cosmologie §i alchimie babiloniand, edititia a Il-a, Ed. Moldova, Ia§i, 1991, 81.

6. Herdot, Istorii, vol. II, EdituraUniversitas, Traducere de Felicia Çtef, Bucureçti, 1998, 97.

7. Schwartz J.C., La medicine dentaire dans L Egypt pharaonique, Bulletin de la Societed Egyptologie, Geneve 2, 1979, 38.

8. Iftimovici R., IstoriaMedicinei, Editura All, Bucureçti, 1994, 34.

9. Bryan C. P., The Papyrus Ebers, Geoffrey Bles, London, 1930, XIII.

10. Chevalier J., Gheerbrant A., Dictionar de simbolnri, vol. Ill (P-Z), Editura Artemis, Bucureçti, 1995, 318.

11. Forrai J. , The beginnings of dental caries and its treatments, Rev. Clin. Pesq. Odontol., Curitiba, v. 5, n. 2, p. 187-192, maio/ago. 2009, 189.

12. Taton R., § Uinta an tied §i medieval a, vol I (De la origini la 1450), Editura Çtiintificâ, Bucureçti, 1970, 61.

13. Baxter W.W., The Dental Art in Ancient Times, Canadian Medical Association St. John, N.B., 1914, 15.

14. Eliade M., Aspecte ale mitnlni,m románente de Paul G. Dinopol, Editura Univers, Bucureçti 1978, 15.

15. Filaromo G., Istoria religiilor. Religiile an tice, vol. 1, Editura Polirom, Ia§i, 2008, p. 141.

16. Cheval J. ier, A. Gheerbrant, Dictionar de simbolnri, vol. I (A-D), Editura Artemis, Bucureçti, 1994, 286.

17. Lanfranco L.P., Caries Through Time: An Anthropological Overview, Contemporary Approach to Dental Caries, 8.

18. Scurlock J., Andersen B. R., Diagnoses in Assirian and Babylonian Medicine, Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 2005, 421.

19. Forrai J., History of Amalgam in Dentistry, Rev. Clin. Pesq. Odontol., 2007, jan/abr; 3 (1):65.

20. Reed, C. Tattoo in Early China, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 120, (3), Jul. - Sep. 2000; 363.

21. Trumble A._, A Brief History of the Smile, Basic Books, 2004, 63.

22. Guerini V., History of Den tistry, A., Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1909, 35.

23. Vukovic A., A. Bajsman, S. Zukic, S. Secic, Cosmetic dentistry in ancient times - a short review, Bull IntAssocPaleodont. 2009; 3 (2):9-13.

24. Hogarth B., Ancient China: From the Neolithic Period to the Han Dynasty, Asian Art Museum Education Department, 1999, 14.

25. Grivu O., Prelegeri de istoria Stomatologiei, Editura Mirton, Timi§oara, 1996, 36.

26. Rusu,I. Petraru G. Inflnenceof church on cultural evolution, European Journal of Science and Theology, 2005; l(l):3-9.