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Self-Regulation And Deliberate Practice
There is a substantial body of literature on deliberate practice, where people set explicit goals, use specific techniques to solve technical and musical problems, and evaluate their progress to develop musically.1 Researchers have studied experts in fields such as music, sport and chess. Despite the divergent fields, there is a degree of uniformity about how experts practice deliberately and self-regulate to improve technique.2 The social cognitive perspective of self-regulation has been informative in the study of expert musicians. Along with intrinsic motivation, the three cyclical phases outlined above (also known as forethought, volitional control and self-reflection) are considered to be integral to self-regulation.2 In the field of music, although specific problems, tasks and techniques vary, experts demonstrate mastery of these phases of self-regulation when they practice.4
Beginning music students believe practice is an important part of being a musician.2 However, when beginners practice their instruments independently, they seldom self-regulate. It has been noted that beginners tend to play through music, without stopping to fix mistakes or work on tone and intonation.6 Beginners tend to rely on parents and teachers to help them practice.7 It has been suggested that beginners cannot practice deliberately because they lack the musical knowledge, aural references, background and framework to evaluate their playing.8
In studies of intermediate middle and high school wind, brass and string students, researchers have found that they begin to report and use some rudimentary practice techniques, and they attempt to self-regulate during practice.9 In one study of intermediate piano students however, the majority of students did not self-regulate or use many practice strategies when practicing at home, despite reporting that they did.10 Pre-college teachers also have reported teaching practice techniques,11 but many students still lack the motivation to employ them at home or fail to assess their weaknesses accurately, suggesting a disconnect between student and teacher perceptions at the intermediate level.
As music students become professionals, both self-regulation and deliberate practice skills develop, though how this happens is unclear.12 While most teachers developed self-regulation strategies as they pursued music degrees, a case has been made for incorporating the teaching of practice into the pedagogy of applied instrumental music instruction at the university level.12 Even young professionals exhibit a wide range of skills...