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Introduction
High levels of physical inactivity in older adults present a challenge to active ageing. In the UK, for example, it is estimated that less than 50% of older adults meet recommended physical activity levels of at least 150minutes of moderate intensity activity per week. 1 Physical activity promotion in primary care has been a major focus of research in recent years. Yet despite promise, particularly in older populations who more regularly visit their doctor, there has been limited evidence of substantial success. A systematic review of the effectiveness of physical activity promotion interventions in primary care published in The BMJ, for example, found evidence of effects at 12 months yet these were typically only small in magnitude. 2 There is the need to identify factors that may increase the likelihood of any improved physical activity habits being maintained.
In the absence of evidence on the efficacy of individual interventions, some research has focused on modifying physical and social environments to reduce potential barriers to active ageing. 3 4 However, some environmental conditions, such as poor weather and short day length, are beyond the direct control of planners yet have been related to decreased levels of physical activity in older adults. 5-7 In such cases, the goal of interventions may be to enhance individual resilience to these poor conditions. A growing body of evidence suggests that dog ownership is associated with higher levels of physical activity in adults in all ages. 8-10
Dog walking has been suggested to be a means of physical activity promotion in older adults. 10 11 Evidence from observational studies shows a positive relationship between dog walking and physical activity in older people across different countries and regions, including USA, Canada and UK. 10-16 For example, using the Health and Retirement Study, a nationwide cohort of older adults aged 50 or above in the USA, reported that dog walking was associated with higher frequency of self-reported physical activity. 11 A small number of intervention studies have also suggested the beneficial effect of dog walking on leisure-time walking and adherence to physical activity programmes. 17 18 A pilot randomised control trial provided educational materials to dog owners who did not walk their dogs regularly and reported increased walking time in the intervention...