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Battered women receiving either shelter (n = 30) or nonshelter services (n = 30) from a domestic violence agency were interviewed regarding psychological abuse and its aftermath. Four types of abuse were derived from factor analysis: ridiculing of traits, criticizing behavior, ignoring, and jealous control. Sheltered women experienced ridicule and jealous/control more often than nonsheltered women. For the entire sample, ridiculing of traits was rated as the most severe form. Ignoring was the strongest predictor of low self-esteem. Both psychological abuse and physical abuse contributed independently to depression and low self-esteem. However, fear of being abused was uniquely predicted by psychological abuse. Implications for practice and research are discussed.
Practitioners and researchers are paying increasing attention to the psychological abuse of women (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause, & Polek, 1990; Jones & Schechter, 1992; Loring, 1994; Tolman, 1989). A major reason for this focus is the realization that psychological abuse may be just as detrimental, or more detrimental, than physical abuse. In one study, 72% of the battered women reported that emotional abuse had a more severe impact than physical abuse (Follingstad et al., 1990). In another study, psychological abuse was more strongly associated with psychosocial problems than threats or physical abuse (Tolman & Bhosley, 1991). The focus of most previous work is on women who are both physically and psychologically abused. Almost all women who are physically abused also report verbal abuse (83%, Walker, 1984) or psychological abuse (99%, Follingstad et al., 1990). Another reason to focus on psychological abuse is the evidence that verbal aggression early in the relationship is a frequent precursor of physical aggression later (Murphy & O'Leary, 1989). Thus, identifying particular forms of psychological abuse may help prevent physical abuse later in the relationship.
Psychological abuse can also help to maintain abusive relationships. If severe enough, it may lead to self-doubt, confusion, and depression. Battered women may subsequently have a difficult time seeing their options and marshaling the resources needed to leave the relationship. At first, a battered woman may respond to criticism and put-downs by trying to change herself, convince her partner they need couple's counseling, or attribute his abuse to his drinking. Over time, many women realize that nothing they do seems to make a difference. Women may...