'Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States'

Environment, Development and Sustainability (2005) 7: 229252 Springer 2005

DOI 10.1007/s10668-005-7314-2ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THEAPPLICATION OF PESTICIDES PRIMARILY IN THEUNITED STATES?DAVID PIMENTELCollege of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-0901, USA(e-mail: [e-mail]; fax: [phone]; tel.: [phone])(Received 24 September 2003; accepted 6 March 2004)Abstract. An obvious need for an updated and comprehensive study prompted this investigation

of the complex of environmental costs resulting from the nations dependence on pesticides.

Included in this assessment of an estimated $10 billion in environmental and societal damages

are analyses of: pesticide impacts on public health; livestock and livestock product losses;

increased control expenses resulting from pesticide-related destruction of natural enemies and

from the development of pesticide resistance in pests; crop pollination problems and honeybee

losses; crop and crop product losses; bird, sh, and other wildlife losses; and governmental

expenditures to reduce the environmental and social costs of the recommended application of

pesticides.The major economic and environmental losses due to the application of pesticides in the USA

were: public health, $1.1 billion year)1; pesticide resistance in pests, $1.5 billion; crop losses

caused by pesticides, $1.4 billion; bird losses due to pesticides, $2.2 billion; and groundwater

contamination, $2.0 billion.Key words: Agriculture, costs, crops, environment, livestock, natural resources, pesticide, pesticide resistance, public health.1. IntroductionWorldwide, about 3 billion kg of pesticides is applied each year with a purchase price of nearly $40 billion year)1 (Pan-UK, 2003). In the USA,

approximately 500 million kg of more than 600 dierent pesticide types are

applied annually at a cost of $10 billion (Pimentel and Greiner, 1997).Despite the widespread application of pesticides in the United States at

recommended dosages, pests (insects, plant pathogens, and weeds) destroy

37% of all potential crops (Pimentel, 1997). Insects destroy 13%, plant

pathogens 12%, and weeds 12%. In general, each dollar invested in pesticide control returns about $4 in protected crops (Pimentel, 1997).? Readers should send their comments on this paper to: [e-mail] within 3

months of publication of this issue.230 D. PIMENTELAlthough pesticides are generally protable in agriculture, their use does

not always decrease crop losses. For example, despite the more than 10-

fold increase in insecticide (organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates) use in the United States from 1945 to 2000, total crop losses from

insect damage have nearly doubled...