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ABSTRACT
This study aims to explore the challenges and obstacles faced by female politicians in Pakistani politics despite gender mainstreaming initiatives. This qualitative study was based on 20 interviews with key informants, who were serving women members of the national assembly, provincial assembly, and district councilors from the Punjab province of Pakistan. This revealed that the foremost challenge faced by women in politics here was gaining formal entry into the political system due to various socio-cultural constraints, such as the culture of pardha (veiling), dual responsibility of household-work and political careers, intrusion by males into women's political careers, and lack of support by the political party leadership. Despite gender-mainstreaming initiatives, including gender quotas, the underlying patriarchal structure of society serves as a major hindrance for women's empowerment. The promotion of a gender-inclusive culture in politics requires concerted and holistic approaches and deeper changes in society and politics, rather than merely increasing the number of women in the political system.
KEYWORDS Women in politics; masculine domain; Pakistan; obstacles
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Introduction
In scholarship on gender politics, there has been growing interest in research on gendered political institutions and the inclusion of women in conventional and 'new' institutions (Mackay & Waylen, 2009/2014). Scholars have closely analyzed how institutions of governance work in gendered ways and the intricate power struggles that take place during institutional reform (Mackay & Waylen, 2014). A growing body of literature has focused on the gendered foundations and recurrent patterns in the political process and have identified that the legislature itself is a gendered institution that marginalizes women (Schwindt-Bayer & Squire, 2014). Shvedova (2005, p. 35) has referred to a 'masculine model of politics' to explain how patriarchy still operates in different ways and at various levels in the institutions of politics. According to her, "political life is organized according to male norms and values and in some cases even male lifestyles," compelling women to conform to male-dominated working patterns and pushing them into disadvantaged positions.
Various strategies have been implemented around the world to remove gender disparities and to develop greater equality in the political process and within institutions. Gender mainstreaming "entails bringing the perceptions, experiences, knowledge and interests of both women and men to bear on...