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Introduction
In 1990, after almost 25 years of applying Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to many projects, I came to the realization that there was a common structure to this work, and I wrote a short paper entitled "A framework for theory."' Over the past three years, this framework has become the primary organizational basis of my teaching, projects, and research. I give here a brief description of this framework and show how it was applied to a recent project.
As a teacher, I have always believed that we must foster an integrated and adaptable approach to theory and practice. I reject the "top-down" concept of a universally applicable landscape planning model or method. Rather, I believe that an appropriate strategy is the result, first, of understanding what the questions are, and then of building up an appropriate project methodology. My search for an over-arching framework within which to organize this process derives from my experience that there is an overwhelming (and perhaps necessary) structural similarity among the questions asked by and of landscape planners and other environmental design professionals.
Professor Amos Rapoport of the University of Wisconsin has provided a useful definition of theories, models, and frameworks. In short, he states, "A theory explains, a model predicts, and a framework organizes. A framework can be judged on its reasonableness and its utility, but claims no exclusivity vis-a-vis other frameworks."2
Six questions in search of an answer
My proposed framework (fig. 1) identifies six types of question. Each can be considered a level of inquiry relating to a theory-driven modeling type. The models on which we rely must be based in usable and valid - or presumed to be valid - theory. They each require the management of information, and GIS can be used - albeit differently - in each type of model.
Project managers and researchers will work through the framework at least three times in any project:
* first, in defining the context and scope of the project;
* second - and in reverse order - in specifying the project methodology; and,
* third, in carrying the project forward to its conclusion.
The six questions with their associated modeling types are listed in the usual order for initially defining the context of a landscape...